Did We All Sin in Adam According to Romans 5:12?

By Mark W. Christy, PhD

In Romans 5:12, Paul utters a theologically rich statement that has been the subject of much conjecture throughout history: “Therefore, just as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men, because all sinned.”[i] Within this verse, the majority of the debate surrounds Paul’s intent behind the last phrase, “because all have sinned.” While various interpretations exist, one of the more popular among them holds that here Paul is referring to the actual sins committed by people throughout history. Another interpretation understands Paul to somehow connect Adam’s sin as being in some way corporate whereby all of his descendants can be rightfully charged with his sin. To better understand Paul’s intention in Romans 5:12, this article will carefully consider these two possibilities so as to determine which is to be preferred.

In the first view presented above, one must supplant biblical teaching on the corrupted nature of the flesh (cf. Gen 6:5; 8:21; Eccl 9:3; Jer 17:9; John 8:34; Rom 1:28-31; 6; Eph 4:17-18; Titus 1:15-16; 3:3). Should one do this, then it would follow that Paul is referring to the collective sins committed by all humanity throughout history due to their corrupted sin nature which was inherited from Adam. Following this interpretation, the curse of death is charged to everyone both because of their own violations of God’s Law and because of Adam’s initial transgression. To put this another way, this view demonstrates the inescapability of death for all people due to their inherent fallen nature. Theologically, this view seems to fit well in the corpus of Pauline theology, but the question at present is whether or not this verse seeks to posit this theology itself.

Detractors of this first view point to the inclusion of the concept of the fallen human nature (i.e., the text does not itself mention anything about the fallen human nature) into the text so as to derive the interpretation that sees Paul as discussing the actual sins of all people. Furthermore, within the context, Paul repeatedly connects Adam’s sin with the death of all with no mention of the collective sins of his posterity: “by the transgression of the one the many died” (Romans 5:15), “judgment arose from one transgression resulting in condemnation” (v.16), “by the transgression of the one, death reigned” (v.17), and “one transgression there resulted condemnation to all men” (v.18). While some may still object by pointing to a single phrase in v.19, “through the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners,” this verse actually aligns with Paul’s ongoing discussion that closely connects Adam’s sin with the idea of corporate condemnation and responsibility.

In vv.18-19, Paul offers a corporate understanding of Adam’s transgression which seems to understand sound support for interpreting v.12 in such a way that all humanity can be charged with his sin. In v.18-19, Paul states that all receive condemnation due to the sin of one because all became sinners at the point of Adam’s rebellious act. God’s judgement against this individual act is universal in its application because all are deemed sinners not only from conception but due to their origination in the person of Adam. For this reason, Paul could teach that all people are “by nature children of wrath” (Eph 2:3). Conversely, he could also say, “in Adam all die” (1 Cor 15:22). In line with Paul’s thought, David, in Psalm 51:5 said, “Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, And in sin my mother conceived me.”

While the second interpretation of Romans 5:12 does seem to best fit the context, many protest the idea that one could be charged with sin apart from one’s own volitional effort. Despite this difficulty that arises in part from the strong regard for the free will among those in the West (especially in the last several centuries), one should note “the popularity of conceptions of corporate solidarity in the Jewish world of Paul’s day.”[ii] Those who held to this view saw the actions of one individual as representative for many. Biblical support for such a position can be found in Joshua 7 where Achan’s sin is said to be Israel’s sin (1, 11).

This Jewish notion of corporate solidarity is commonly known as federalism among reformed theologians. Under federalism, Adam is seen as the federal head who represents humanity during God’s established probationary period in the Garden of Eden where God plants a tree, makes a command, and tests Adam. While some are uncomfortable that the appointment of Adam as the representative of all humanity was fully at God’s discretion, one must also remember that the appointment of Christ as the representative for all redeemed sinners was as well. This principle of representation by divine appointment undergirds the entire context of Romans 5:12 because Paul’s ultimate goal is to explain Christ’s representation of the sinner unto salvation. As he comments in vv.18-19, “through one act of righteousness there resulted justification of life to all men,” and “through the obedience of the One the many will be made righteous.”

In conclusion, Paul makes a direct connection in Romans 5:12 between the sin of Adam and its relation to all people. Put simply, all people sinned vicariously through Adam who represented them in the trial in the Garden of Eden. Likewise, all people are offered the opportunity to have Christ vicariously represent them before God is such a way that they can be deemed sinless despite Adam’s sin and their own.

[i]All Scripture references are taken from NASB1995.

[ii]Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, in NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 327.